Endnotes

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1. For more information, see “The Uncertain Pathway from Youth to a Good Job,” Center on Education and the Workforce, Georgetown University, May 17, 2022.
2. For more information, see “Good Jobs That Pay Without a BA,” by Anthony P. Carnevale, Jeff Strohl and Neil Ridley, Center on Education and the Workforce, Georgetown University, 2017.
3. See note 2.
4. “Texas Community Colleges Fact Sheet,” Texas Association of Community Colleges, October 2020.
5. For more information, see “Fall 2021 Preliminary Enrollment Report–TACC Initial Survey,” by Chris Fernandez, Texas Association of Community Colleges, Oct. 27, 2021. See also “The Indispensable Institution: Taking the Measure of Community College Workforce Education,” by Tamar Jacoby, Opportunity America, September 2021, and “U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States; Texas,” Census Bureau, 2021.
6. For more information, see “Texas Public Higher Education Almanac: A Profile of State and Institutional Performance and Characteristics,” Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, 2021.
7. See Jacoby from note 5.
8. “Workforce Potential of Texas Community Colleges,” by A.J. Rodriguez and Glenn Hamer, Lubbock Avalanche Journal, December 2021.
9. “Texas’ Community Colleges: Statewide Overview,” Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts, accessed Aug. 16, 2022.
10. See Fernandez from note 5, and note 9.
11. See note 9.
12. See Fernandez from note 5 and “Current Term Enrollment Estimates,” National Student Clearinghouse Research Center, May 26, 2022.
13. “Students Cut College During Pandemic; Their Return Is Uncertain,” by Wenhua Di and Mytiah Caldwell, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas Southwest Economy, First Quarter, 2022.
14. Author interview with Texas Commissioner of Higher Education Harrison Keller, Feb. 23, 2022.
15. Author interviews with national higher education funders and education researchers (see Appendix).
16. “Population Change for Texas Counties: 2010–20,” Texas Demographic Center, 2021.
17. Author interviews with Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board leadership and several community college chancellors (see Appendix). See also “Texas Community College Finance Commission Briefing,” by Joe May, Dallas College, Feb. 1, 2022.
18. See Joe May from note 17.
19. Author interview with Sheri Rains, Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board director of workforce education, Jan. 19, 2022.
20. Author interviews with educators, education researchers and higher education funders in Texas and nationwide (see Appendix).
21. Author interview with Texas Association of Community Colleges then-president Jacob Fraire, Feb. 25, 2022.
22. See Jacoby from note 5.
23. See Joe May from note 17.
24. See note 14.
25. The Opportunity America community college survey was in the field from mid-October 2020 through mid-March 2021. All community and technical colleges nationwide were invited to participate, and 477 replied, for a 38 percent response rate. In Texas, 59 two-year institutions, including some hybrid secondary-postsecondary schools, were invited, and 32 replied, for a 54 percent response rate. All questions in the study asked about fiscal year 2019. Unless otherwise noted, all data in the main text are based on the Opportunity America survey. For publications utilizing the survey data, see Jacoby from note 5 and “Investigating the Hidden College: A Study of Community College Noncredit Education in Five States,” by Peter Riley Bahr, Rooney Columbus, Kennan Cepa, Jennifer May-Trifiletti and Samuel Kaser, University of Michigan and Opportunity America (forthcoming).
26. “Technology Displaced Workers in Pandemic; Retraining Must Expand,” Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas Southwest Economy, Third Quarter 2021.
27. See note 6.
28. See note 6.
29. “Trend Generator,” National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Services, 2021. For more, see “What We Know about Transfer,” Community College Research Center, Teachers College, Columbia University, January 2015.
30. “First-Time Postsecondary Students in 2011–12: A Profile,” Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, and U.S. Department of Education, September 2016; “Persistence, Retention, and Attainment of 2011–12 First Time Beginning Postsecondary Students,” by Xianglei Chen, Barbara G. Elliott, Satkartar Kinney, Darryl Cooney, Joshua Pretlow, Michael Bryan, Joanna Wu, Nestor Ramirez, and Taylor Campbell, U.S. Department of Education, February 2019.
31. See note 6.
32. See Bahr et al. from note 25.
33. See note 14.
34. Author interview with Laura Marmolejo, Austin Community College advance manufacturing department chair, Feb. 28, 2022.
35. Author interview with Garrett Groves, Austin Community College vice chancellor of strategic initiatives, Jan. 19, 2022.
36. See Jacoby from note 5 and “2022 Fast Facts,” by Martha Parham, American Association of Community Colleges, February 2022.
37. “Characteristics of Postsecondary Students,” National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Services, May 2022.
38. See note 14.
39. See note 6.
40. See note 4.
41. See note 4.
42. Census Bureau, 2010 and 2020 census count.
43. Census Bureau, 2010 and 2020 census count, P.L. 94-171 Redistricting File. See also “Population Change and Education in Texas,” by Lloyd Potter, Texas Demographic Center, Dec. 8, 2021.
44. “Texas Population Projects Program,” Texas Demographic Center, accessed Aug. 16, 2022; “Texas Gained Almost Nine Hispanic Residents for Every Additional White Resident Last Year,” by Alexa Ura and Connie Jin, Texas Tribune, June 20, 2019.
45. See Fernandez from note 5.
46. See Fernandez from note 5.
47. See Fernandez from note 5.
48. Census Bureau, 2019 American Community Survey.
49. Census Bureau, 2019 American Community Survey.
50. See note 6.
51. See note 6.
52. “Spotlight: Pandemic Pushes Texas Minority Unemployment Beyond Highs Reached During Great Recession,” by Carlee Crocker and Pia Orrenius, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas Southwest Economy, First Quarter, 2021.
53. “Is College Worth It? A Comprehensive Return on Investment Analysis,” by Preston Cooper, The Foundation for Research on Equal Opportunity, Oct. 19, 2021.
54. Author interviews with San Jacinto college administrators: Allatia Harris, vice chancellor for strategic initiatives; Shelley Rinehart, assistant vice chancellor for instructional and program support efficacy; and Kenneth Tidwell, dean of workforce development, Jan. 24, 2022.
55. See note 52.
56. Author interview with Juan Garza, Texas State Technical College vice president for sponsored programs, Feb. 11, 2022.
57. See note 14.
58. “Higher Ed Funding: Linking Technical College Dollars to Workforce Outcomes,” by Ashley Putnam, Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, May 17, 2021.
59. See note 58.
60. Author interview with Michael Bettersworth (see Appendix).
61. “Rethinking the Mission: Community Colleges and Workforce Education,” by Tamar Jacoby, American Enterprise Institute, November 2017.
62. See note 4.
63. “Outcomes-Driven Funding & the Future of Employment Data,” by Michael Bettersworth, Center for Employability Outcomes at Texas State Technical College, November 2021.
64. See note 19.
65. Author interview with Melissa Henderson, Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board associate commissioner for strategic partnerships and Texas Higher Education Foundation director, Feb. 7, 2022. See also “Building a Talent Strong Texas,” Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, accessed August 2022.
66. See note 57
67. Author interview with Jacob Fraire, then-president of the Texas Association of Community Colleges, Feb. 25, 2022.
68. “Report to the 88th Legislature,” Texas Commission on Community College Finance, November 2022.
69. See Joe May from note 17.
70. See Joe May from note 17.
71. “Linking appropriations for the Texas State Technical College System to Student Employment Outcomes,” by Jeffery Selingo and Martin Van Der Werf, Lumina Foundation, March 2016.
72. “Aim Hire Texas Workforce Issues,” Aim Hire Texas, February 2021.
73. See Jacoby from note 5.
74. See Bahr et al. from note 25.
75. See Jacoby from note 5.
76. “Gold Standard Career Pathways Statewide Articulation Agreement,” Florida Department of Education, accessed Aug. 16, 2022.
77. Author interview with Joe May, then-chancellor of Dallas College, Feb. 10, 2022.
78. “Postsecondary Taxonomy,” Career and Technical Education Statistics, National Center for Education Statistics.
79. For more information, see “The Indispensable Institution: Taking the Measure of Community College Workforce Education,” by Tamar Jacoby, Opportunity America, September 2021.
80. See note 2.
81. See note 2.
82. For more information, see “Industry Certifications: A Better Bridge from School to Work?” by Tamar Jacoby, Opportunity America, September 2019.
83. For more information, see “The Narrow Ladder: The Value of Industry Certifications in the Job Market” by Will Markow, Dan Restuccia and Blendi Taska, Burning Glass Technologies, October 2017.
84. See note 2.